7. Physical implementation of PID control
In the early history of automatic process control the PID controller was implemented as a mechanical device. These mechanical controllers used a lever, spring and a mass and were often energized by compressed air. These pneumatic controllers were once the industry standard.Electronic analog controllers can be made from a solid-state or tube amplifier, a capacitor and a resistance. Electronic analog PID control loops were often found within more complex electronic systems, for example, the head positioning of a disk drive, the power conditioning of a power supply, or even the movement-detection circuit of a modern seismometer. Nowadays, electronic controllers have largely been replaced by digital controllers implemented with microcontrollers or FPGAs.
Most modern PID controllers in industry are implemented in software in programmable logic controllers (PLCs) or as a panel-mounted digital controller. Software implementations have the advantages that they are relatively cheap and are flexible with respect to the implementation of the PID algorithm.
比例积分微分控制器（PID调节器）是一个控制环，广泛地应用于工业控制系统里的反馈机制。PID控制器通过调节给定值与测量值之间的偏差，给出正确的调整，从而有规律地纠正控制过程。
PID控制器算法涉及到三个部分：比例，积分，微分。比例控制是对当前偏差的反应，积分控制是基于新近错误总数的反应，而微分控制则是基于错误变化率的反应。这三种控制的结合可用来调节过程系统，例如调节阀的位置，或者加热系统的电源调节。根据具体的工艺要求，通过PID控制器的参数整定，从而提供调节作用。控制器的响应可以被认为是对系统偏差的响应。注意一点的是，PID算法不一定就是系统或系统稳定性的最佳控制。论文网
一些应用可能只需要运用一到两种方法来提供适当的系统控制。这是通过把不想要的控制输出置零取得。在控制系统中存在P,PI,PD,PID调节器。PI调节器很普遍，因为微分控制对测量噪音非常敏感。积分作用的缺乏可以防止系统根据控制目标而达到它的目标值。
注释：由于控制理论和应用领域的差异，很多相关变量的命名约定是常用的。 PID控制器英文文献和中文翻译(6):http://www.youerw.com/fanyi/lunwen_13019.html