2.3 Derivative term
The rate of change of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the error over time (i.e. its first derivative with respect to time) and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain Kd. The magnitude of the contribution of the derivative term to the overall control action is termed the derivative gain, Kd.
 
The derivative term is given by:
Dout: Derivative output
Kd: Derivative Gain, a tuning parameter
e: Error = SP − PV
t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
The derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output and this effect is most noticeable close to the controller setpoint. Hence, derivative control is used to reduce the magnitude of the overshoot produced by the integral component and improve the combined controller-process stability. However, differentiation of a signal amplifies noise and thus this term in the controller is highly sensitive to noise in the error term, and can cause a process to become unstable if the noise and the derivative gain are sufficiently large.
2.4 Summary
The output from the three terms, the proportional, the integral and the derivative terms are summed to calculate the output of the PID controller. Defining u(t) as the controller output, the final form of the PID algorithm is:
 
and the tuning parameters are
Kp: Proportional Gain - Larger Kp typically means faster response since the
larger the error, the larger the Proportional term compensation. An excessively large proportional gain will lead to process instability and oscillation.
Ki: Integral Gain - Larger Ki implies steady state errors are eliminated quicker. The trade-off is larger overshoot: any negative error integrated during transient response must be integrated away by positive error before we reach steady state.
Kd: Derivative Gain - Larger Kd decreases overshoot, but slows down transient response and may lead to instability due to signal noise amplification in the differentiation of the error.
3. Loop tuning
If the PID controller parameters (the gains of the proportional, integral and derivative terms) are chosen incorrectly, the controlled process input can be unstable, i.e. its output perges, with or without oscillation, and is limited only by saturation or mechanical breakage. Tuning a control loop is the adjustment of its control parameters (gain/proportional band, integral gain/reset,
derivative gain/rate) to the optimum values for the desired control response.
The optimum behavior on a process change or setpoint change varies depending on the application. Some processes must not allow an overshoot of the process variable beyond the setpoint if, for example, this would be unsafe. Other processes must minimize the energy expended in reaching a new setpoint. Generally, stability of response (the reverse of instability) is required and the process must not oscillate for any combination of process conditions and setpoints. Some processes have a degree of non-linearity and so parameters that work well at full-load conditions don't work when the process is starting up from no-load. This section describes some traditional manual methods for loop tuning.
There are several methods for tuning a PID loop. The most effective methods generally involve the development of some form of process model, then choosing P, I, and D based on the dynamic model parameters. Manual tuning methods can be relatively inefficient.
The choice of method will depend largely on whether or not the loop can be taken "offline" for tuning, and the response time of the system. If the system can be taken offline, the best tuning method often involves subjecting the system to a step change in input, measuring the output as a function of time, and using this response to determine the control parameters.
Choosing a Tuning Method
MethodAdvantagesDisadvantages
Manual TuningNo math required. Online method.Requires experienced PID控制器英文文献和中文翻译(3):http://www.youerw.com/fanyi/lunwen_13019.html