All of this being said discussed the variables in school learning or more specific, the classroom processes. And the time spent is the core concept of managing the classroom processes. According to the ‘Teaching/Learning process’ system, the main variables in classroom processes are the behaviors of teachers and students, that is, broadly speaking, the classroom discourses. 

Beginning at least thirty-five years ago, a significant direction in applied linguistic and education research has involved work that study on the nature and implications of classroom interactions which is commonly referred to as ‘classroom discourse’ later. The groundbreaking research in the 1970s and 1980s by a group of scholars, including Mehan, Sinclair and Coulthard, Barnes, Cazden, Green and others offered us a major beginning in their close studies on classroom discourse, revealing, as they did, the systems, patterns and basic functions of classroom interactions.

Studies on classroom discourse have developed into a heterogeneous area of investigation and the great masters have also constantly enriched its history in perse areas. Hence, it’s not surprising that the directions of investigations themselves vary, in scope as well as theme. Courtney. B. Cazden, for instance, provides a broad-ranging review of sociolinguistic research on classroom discourse spanning approximately 1965-1985 in the United States and the united kingdom as weel as some other important countries in her main work Classroom Discourse: The Language of Teaching and Learning. Cazden believes that “The study of classroom discourse is the study of that communication system.” And she also reveals that the spoken language is the medium by which much teaching takes place, and in which students demonstrate to teachers much of what they have learned. Based on these views, she focuses on laws of the language use patterns and significantly, including the effect that the patterns make on the equality and inequality of students’ educational opportunities. Also, as part of her review, she identifies ‘strand’ or cluster of researches in perse countries, including ethnographers of communication, teachers of English, sociologists of education, etc, which is used to do the repeated demonstration and reasonable supplement.

Additionally, referring to the issues on classroom discourse, another book named the Handbook of Classroom Discourse and Interaction which is edited by Numa Markee is supposed to be highly valued here. It is the latest book published in 2015. This book organizes the discussion on classroom discourse from six perspectives, including the educational tradition, the cognitive interaction tradition, the sociocultural theory tradition, the language socialization tradition, the conversation analysis tradition and the critical theory tradition. Among those perspectives, the educational tradition is closely related to the analysis of classroom observation. The “conversational actions” and “problem solving actions” are the two most important concepts in the analysis of transcript of classroom observation. 

All of this being discussed, the scholars in perse areas, including the educational psychology, sociolinguistics and the management of schools have been seeking answers to the question that how to make our classroom processes more effective and useful for students. The core idea, finally, is sorted of doubled back to that comment: increasing the learning opportunities for students. They seek to reach the same goal by different means with a potential connection with each other but have not made the integration. 

Opportunity for student learning can be increased by ensuring that teachers are employing effective classroom-management strategies, since undue time spent attending to behavioral disruptions or other disciplinary issues reduces instructional time. And the classroom discourses are playing significant or main roles in the classroom management. But the applications of the high-ordered classroom discourses cannot be separately discussed or applied without the scientific analysis of Academic Learning Time (ALT) as time is the main variable that influences the discourses definitely.  文献综述