2。 Literature Review

2。1 Conversation Analysis

The definition of conversation is “a form of linguistic analysis which focuses on transcripts of real-life spoken interactions。 It is often referred to as the study of talk in interaction”。 (Paul,2011。)

In sociolinguistics, conversation analysis (CA) is the study of the talk produced in ordinary human interactions。 Sociologist Harvey Sacks (1935-1975) is generally credited with founding the discipline。 The definition of CA is a “naturalistic observational discipline that could deal with the details of social action rigorously, empirically and formally” (Sacks, p。289)。论文网

"At its core," says Jack Sidnell, "conversation analysis is a set of methods for working with audio and video recordings of talk and social interaction" (Conversation Analysis: An Introduction, 2010)。 Therefore, conversation analysis is often used in the literature appreciation because it can help people get direct information from words of characters in literature works。 

Turn-taking and cooperative principle/ politeness principle are specific methods used in the conversation analysis。

2。2 Turn-taking

In 1974, Sacks et al。 first put forward the concept of turn-taking。 The process of conversations is characterized by turn-taking: participant A talks, stops; another B starts, talks, stops; and so we obtain an A–B–A–B–A–B distribution of talks across two participants (Levinson, 1983)。

 “They have discovered that in a given conversation there is only one person at a time, only he stops will another begins to talk。 Three principles of turn-taking are:

The speaker ”selects” the next speaker

The first to talk becomes the speaker

The speaker continues her own remarks。 " (张应林, ,2006)。 

People feel so naturally to take turn-taking in their daily communication that they may ignore the turn-taking principles and lead misunderstandings。"Once a topic is chosen and a conversation initiated, then matters of conversational 'turn-taking' arise。 Knowing when it is acceptable or obligatory to take a turn in conversation is essential to the cooperative development of discourse。 This knowledge involves such factors as knowing how to recognize appropriate turn-exchange points and knowing how long the pauses between turns should be。 It is also important to know how (and if) one may talk while someone else is talking--that is, if conversational overlap is allowed。 Since not all conversations follow all the rules for turn-taking, it is also necessary to know how to 'repair' a conversation that has been thrown off course by undesired overlap or a misunderstood comment。 (Wolfram, 2006)

Turn-taking theory is used to how misunderstandings between speakers happen which makes the story develops and the changes of speakers’ power position。

2。3 The Cooperative Principle and the Politeness Principle

2。3。1 The Cooperative Principle 

The concept of the cooperative principle was introduced by philosopher H。 Paul Grice in his article "Logic and Conversation" (Syntax and Semantics, 1975)。 Grice describes it as “make your conversation contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”。 (Paul Baker, 2011。)

"We might then formulate a rough general principle which participants will be expected (ceteris paribus) to observe, namely: Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged。 One might label this the Cooperative Principle。"(Grice, 1975)

He formulates the principle and its maxims in “ Logic and Conversation” (1975) as follows: make your contribution such as is required，at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged。  It includes the following maxims:文献综述