2. Literature Review
As a significant aspect of nonverbal communication in intercultural communication, different concepts of time contribute to our understanding of cultural differences. A .L .Kroeber and Kluckhohn give a comprehensive definition of culture in 1952. The culture definition summarizes the studies of culture, which had a wide impact on sociology and anthropology.
Strodtbeck and Kluckhohn propose six value theories, and one of them is the time concept. In their responses to the time concept, they are not only in favor of monochronic time system and polychronic time system proposed by E. T. Hall, but also the past, the present and the future time-oriented theory. They argue that ethnic groups with different culture have different time concepts. They put forward six viewpoints as below (1) the view of human nature;(2) people’s perception of their own relationship with the external environment; (3) people’s views on the relationship between themselves and others; (4)the activities of the human; (5) the concept of space ;(6) the time concept. Kluckhohn and based on Strodtbeck point out that people from different nations and countries have quite different views on these six issues. In return,different opinions based on these issues significantly affect people’ attitudes and behaviors towards their life and work.
3. Classifications Based on Time Concepts
3.1 Classifications on Psychological Sense of Time
Zero-time orientation means that in some cultures people have no time concept, therefore it does not matter for them in the past, present or future. For example, those Indians live in South America and Montana have no time concept, they can not tell the time, or say what time is it .They does not comprehend the sense of time. Another example is that a Afghanistan and his brother arranged a meeting in Kabul, but both of them haven’t decided when to see, year after year, and he is still in Kabul searching for his sibling. This story sounds very interesting, but on the cultural level, it clearly reflects their value of zero- time.
In the tradition of Islam, Muslims consider future belongs to Allah. The cultural groups belong to present-orientation. They are unwilling to predict things to come, thinking that it is not under control. The Philippines and Latin America people consider “now” is the most important. These cultures are more optional and randomness than others in terms of attitude towards time. However, this style full of chivalry often makes Westerners misunderstand them as lazy and inefficient.
Americans believe there are no vocabulary such as “delay” and “wait” in their language. Therefore, if you promise one of the Navajo Indians to give him a horse in autumn, he will become very furious. But if you give a thin and weak horse, and let him ride away immediately, he will be very delighted to accept it. It is real for Navajo to receive presents at once. They do not think of commitment can be achieved in the future. Similarly, Arab people also tend to lay stress on the concept of time. They recognize anyone who wants to understand the situation of the future is somewhat mentally abnormal. No other than God foreknow approaching events, and it is disrespectful for normal people to talk about future. Therefore, if you want to ask an Egyptian farmer how much the product will be, he will feel be offended and regard you as a lunatic.
That people with past-orientation either keep things happened in the past in mind, or treat a thing of the past as what happened just now. As Oriental (especially Chinese) under the influence of Confucian traditional culture are more inclined to believe man’s nature at birth is good, and social orientation links to tradition. Traditional thoughts, rules and methods continue to be recognized, which develop into the in voluntary community, and stipulate behaviors of people. Therefore oriental people look back on the time, that is, they follow past-orientation. People treat past with a distinct sense of reverence, and regard past experience and lessons as important references for today. Relatively, they don’t care much about the future, considering that future is unknown. In contrast, they show interest in distant or ideal future. Before doing things, they consider whether anyone has done them, and what they can experience failures and success. They like quoting from the classics, tracing back to the sources, so conforming to convention has become a kind of social specification. 跨文化交际中的中美时间观之对比分析(2):http://www.youerw.com/yingyu/lunwen_64366.html